Communicative Language Teaching

Q1) Write about your past formal or informal language learning experiences (any which is not your first language). Would you consider them to be effective or ineffective? Give reasons for your answer. A) I had just passed my 4th std and was on vacations to a remote village in Karnataka where my mother was posted as a headmistress for a government primary school. I had no plans of leaving my mother and returning with my father to belgaum and continue with my school . Nevertheless I was cajoled into coming back , that was in mid july , and by then it was a month and a half since my school had re-opened. I was in for a rude surprise as a language had been included into our curriculum. I came across a very terse looking gentleman who turned out to be our hindi teacher. My real troubles began when I was asked to give my introduction as I was a latecomer. My hindi teacher gave me an earful for not attending the previous classes and asked me to be very careful henceforth. The classes had begun quite early and I was way behind. My classmates had learnt the consonants and vowels by heart . I could not recognize a single alphabet, the script was alien to me, it was in devanagari . I was in tears and very miserable as I was punished for not being able to answer anything nor read from the text book. The next few days went by and then one fine morning my hindi teacher condescended to help me in grasping the new language. He sat by me on my bench and taught me the hindi alphabets one by one . I felt encouraged and started taking interest and slowly and gradually I learnt to read and write. We were given words with their English meaning which were to be memorized by us. This memorization turned out to be a building block in my endeavour of acquiring vocabulary and fluency in the language. I went on to score the highest in the class. I participated in debates, wrote essays ,memorized the dohas and their summaries, so on and so forth and went on scoring high for the rest of my school days. I became his favourite pupil and gained my self respect as well. And the person who made it all possible was my hindi teacher who was very sincere, dedicated and devoted towards his profession and his pupils . He was sensitive to every student’s needs and used very innovative methods. He was always at hand to clear any doubt, explain anything or answer any question. He made us feel very comfortable but was very strict about the home assignments . He made the lessons interesting by his way of teaching. And I think his methods were very effective in helping us all to learn a new language. Interaction, Motivation and encouragement are the key words ,which I think and believe benefit every student in the process of learning a new language. The old school method of drilling and memorizing also does help in acquiring a vocabulary and learning grammar helps us frame sentences accurately. Q2) Why do you think the CLT has gained popularity in the language classroom? A. The CLT is a more generally accepted approach today owing to a wide variety of interpretations and classroom applications. The approach highlights distinct communicatve traits and incorporates authentic, real world simulations and meaningful tasks. B. Communicative Language Teaching can be defined as a unified yet broadly based , theoretically well informed set of doctrines about nature of language learning and teaching. C. Communicative Language Teaching highlights the social, cultural and pragmatic features of languages. It uses authentic language to a great extent in an attempt to build fluency. D. The basic characteristics of the communicative mode of teaching feature distinct digression from the previous approaches. E. In Communicative Language Teaching, the grammatical, functional, socio-linguistic and strategic discourse components are at their best possible interplay. The techniques are utilitarian and driven towards fulfillment of individual purposes. F. Fluency and accuracy are complementary principles that alternatively acquire high degree of importance. G. Productive and contextualized communication is necessarily the goal and the students need to towards this goal through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning. The teacher here is the facilitator who is supposed to facilitate authentic linguistic interaction and encourage meaningful construction of language. H. The functional aspects like fluency and spontaneity displace overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules and concentrate on the learner’s initiative in CLT. Hence ,the communicative approach stresses the importance of language functions( such as, agreeing, inviting , suggesting etc)as opposed to reliance only on grammar vocabulary. This approach also suggests that if students have enough exposure to the language and the opportunity to use it then language learning would in effect , take care of itself. Activities in CLT typically require students to use the language in real life situations, so role-play and simulation have become popular with this method. CLT places far more emphasis on completion of the task then the accuracy of the language

Exploring the Relationship Between Mother and Baby Essay

Exploring the relationship between mother and baby in the NICU in relation to nursing support. Abstract Aim -To explore the effect of interaction related to care-giving and information exchange between nurses and mothers in relation to maternal stress and maternal-infant relationship in the newborn intensive care unit (NICU) throughout the hospital stay. Background – Mothers in the NICU experience depression, anxiety, stress, and loss of control, and they fluctuate between feelings of inclusion and exclusion related to the provision of health care to their neonate. This literature review helps to identify nursing interventions that promote positive outcomes between mother and baby by reducing maternal feelings of stress and anxiety. Search Method – A literature search covering the period 2008-2012 was conducted. Five articles reporting both quantitative and qualitative studies relative to the subject were retrieved. Findings – Findings reveal that positive and trustful relationships between nurses and mothers develop when nurses communicate and interact with mothers. This alleviated mother’s anxiety and enhanced their confidence when interacting with their baby. Discussion – Critical analysis as well as strengths and weaknesses of the relative journals reviewed is given together with useful recommendations that emerge from the evidence. Conclusion – The literature reviewed shows that nurse-mother interaction improves mother-infant relationship. In turn, this will eventually assist in decreasing maternal stress and improve the maternal well-being. INTRODUCTION Mothers develop attachment to their baby during pregnancy, which continues and develops more fully after the child is born (Cleveland 2009). However, the pathway to becoming a mother is threatened with the admission of the baby to the NICU. This occurs due to the unfamiliar and intimidating environment of the NICU (Obeidat et al 2009). During the initial admission parents can believe that the healthcare team is more able to care for their baby and this can instill feelings of inadequacy (Cockfort 2011). As a result, maternal attachment may be delayed by the lack of socialisation between mother and baby as most of the care is done by nurses (Cleveland 2009). DeRouck and Leys (2009), found that the parents of an infant admitted to the NICU face challenges including access to information, disclosure about the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of their newborn, as well as a lack of control over the care of their newborn. Adding to this distress is the uncertainty of survival or the eventual impact of the infant’s condition on later health and well-being. In addition, feeling guilty to mother an unhealthy infant creates fear of social prejudice. Further, the structure of the NICU places significant barriers on mothers’ abilities to enact the parental role since decision-making and the daily care of the infant is taken over by medical and nursing staff restricting interactions with the babies stripping off their maternal authority (Cleveland 2009). In fact, when babies are in the NICU, traditional conceptualizations of the parental role are altered. The situation demands heightened parental participation while simultaneously placing severe restrictions on parental involvement. In response, parents need to negotiate this tension and traditional definitions of the parental role, which must be continually redefined throughout their experience What emerges is that the predominant source of distress is inability of the mother to protect the infant from pain and provide appropriate pain management. (Fenwick et al 2008). A lot of procedures cause pain in the neonate creating concerns for the mother, starting from peripheral cannulas, indwelling catheters and intubation to mention a few. In intubated babies, even though morphine infusions are administered, the baby still shows signs of distress during nursing times. In this case, we administer a small bolus of pain relief prior to nursing so that the baby would be more comfortable. Conversely, Fenwick et al (2008) describes factors that contribute to parents’ satisfaction in the NICU. These include; assurance and psychological support, the provision of consistent information, education, environmental follow-up care, appropriate pain management, and parental participation and proximity, as well as physical and spiritual support. Therefore, it is imperative that nurses should do their best to improve the mothers’ sense of confidence, competence and connection with her infant through guided participation (Domanico et al 2011). Johnson (2008) notes that skin-to-skin holding or kangaroo care promotes maternal-infant feelings of closeness, builds maternal confidence, and may be a stress-reducing experience for both the mother and infant. Hence the importance of providing the opportunity for kangaroo care to occur. Hunt (2008), notes that KMC is also crucial to stabilize parameters, such as cardio-respiratory parameters whilst being beneficial for maintaining body temperature. They add that even the incidence of nosocomial sepsis and the duration of hospital stay decreased with practicing KMC. In addition, Ali et al., (2009), found that Kangaroo mother care also showed positive outcomes towards practicing exclusive breastfeeding. Cockfort (2011) notes that, continuity of care needs to be ensured hence the importance of documentation. Therefore, it is suggested that handover should not be rushed, whilst a more comprehensive handover can ensure the smooth transition of care for staff and the family. When parents ask questions relating to their baby they feel assured in the competency of staff when information has been passed on correctly. When information is not shared effectively parents can lose trust and the partnership breaks down. In Malta, even though handover of 2 consecutive days is given, conflicting advice is still given at times due to the nurses’ different view-points. Consequently, this requires ward meetings in order to clarify important issues so that advice given and practice is consistent. In Malta, about 373 babies are admitted yearly (Grech et al 2012). In view of the benefits discussed, nurses should do their utmost to improve the overall experience of the mothers of such babies. Search Method A review of published research consisted of the following steps; broad reading to determine areas of focus, identification of inclusion and exclusion criteria, literature search (appendix 1) and retrieval, critical appraisal and analysis of the research evidence and synthesis of evidence. Evidence was reviewed with the aims of identifying barriers that affect the motherinfant interaction within the neonatal intensive care unit and how nurses can actively support attachment. Articles were included if the setting was primarily in a neonatal intensive care unit (neonatal unit or neonatal intensive care unit) and the participants were mothers of infants admitted to neonatal intensive care units or nurses working within that setting. In addition, All articles were critically analyzed with two primary questions in mind: (a) What are the needs of parents in the NICU? (b) What nursing behaviors support parents in meeting these needs? Articles were also included if they were primary research studies published between 2008 and 2012 and written in the English language. Primary and secondary literature searches were conducted through the EBSCO, ERIC, Sciencedirect and Medline databases. The primary search terms included â€Å"NICU,† â€Å"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit,† â€Å"family support,† â€Å"communication,† â€Å"nurse† and â€Å"early intervention.† The secondary literature search terms included â€Å"nursing support,† â€Å"efficacy,† â€Å"family,† â€Å"communication,† â€Å"support†, â€Å"neonatal† and â€Å"Kangaroo Mother Care†. These terms were used and utilised in all possible combinations to perform an extensive literature search of the above mentioned electronic databases. Thirdly, a review of references was conducted of the identified articles for any further studies. Eighteen articles were found through the search. Six studies met the inclusion criteria of which, 3 were qualitative and 3 quantitative (appendix 2). The subject was limited to the last 5 years. This time frame helps in the getting the most recent experiences since NICU is a changing environment especially as regards to technology which effects the mothers as well as the nurses. Both quantitative and qualitative studies were found. Both qualitative and quantitative research was conducted to identify what is known about the needs of NICU parents and what behaviours support these parents. Both methods of research were included because of the potential for each to contribute to a more complete understanding of this topic. In selecting a research design, researchers should be guided by one overarching consideration: whether the design does the best possible job of providing trustworthy answers to the research questions. One needs to note that both studies have limitations (Cottrell & McKenzie, 2011). In quantitative research, the researcher’s aim is to determine the relationship between one variable (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population (Morrow 2009). In contrast to quantitative designs, qualitative designs do not result in numerical data for statistical analysis (Schira, 2009). In qualitative methods, researchers are interested in interpreting social phenomena and exploring the meanings that people attach to their experiences (Polit and Beck 2010). Moreover, views, attitudes and behaviours may be explored (Wood & Kerr, 2011), through grounded theory as it develops theories that are â€Å"grounded† in the group’s observable experiences, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist. Findings Table 1 includes information about the 5 studies that met the inclusion criteria . Once an infant is admitted into an NICU, many factors account for parental stress. Admission of the infant to the NICU places mothers in a stressful situation where they must cope with the NICU environment and its associated demands. In the study conducted by Parker (2011), a grounded theory approach was used to understand feeling and stressors of 11 mothers whose new-borns were in the NICU. It was found that the early days shock and numbness accompanied feelings of none or little control over their lives. Moreover, all mothers described feeling unprepared for the premature delivery and the sight of their baby in the NICU. Comparative results were found by Lee et al (2009), with regards to the shock experienced with the initial sight of the baby. Everyday unpredictable changes occur leaving no time for adjustment or preparation. Constant fears about the life and death of the baby do not subside and several mothers spoke about their experience of always anticipating the death of the baby. These findings are also reflected in my clinical setting when mothers would be recounting their experience once the baby’s condition improves. This is in line with the findings of Fenwick et al (2009) and Lee et al (2009). In addition, the findings imply that the positive reassurance of the effects of a positive and caring environment and support network between parents and nurses in the NICU is not always evident among every unit. Nicholas-Sargent (2009) found that assurance is the most important aspect to be fulfilled. Her quantitative study of 46 mothers found that the length of stay in the NICU and mothers’ information needs were found to be significantly inversely correlated. Therefore, this suggests that the longer an infant remains hospitalized in the NICU, the less emphasis the mother places on receiving information about the infant’s condition. This shows that the needs of the mothers in the NICU can change over time. My observations match these findings since mothers familiarise themselves and adapt to the situation. Moreover, they would eventually want to be successful with the care of the baby. This is reflected in the grounded theory analysis conducted by Fenwick et al (2008), using semi-structured interviews. They found that the nurse-mother relationship had the potential to significantly affect how women perceived their connection to the infant and their confidence in caring for their infant which occurred through a three way interaction. Being successful in their desire to care for the baby, engendered feelings associated with being a ‘‘real’’ mother. However, not all women in this study were able to successfully employ these strategies. In the situation where the mother perceived herself as ‘‘quiet and unassertive’’, and in a position without any power, it was very difficult to gain the confidence needed in order to be able to openly question, negotiate and direct the care of her infant. Therefore, it is very important to identify these mothers in order to help them by giving them continuous reassurance. This would particularly be required when the situation changes from support needing to encouragement in participation. Lee et al (2009) found that mothers received support from the healthcare professionals and the social networks that mothers made. These helped to create the connections that developed between the mothers and infants making their journey towards parenthood possible. They discovered that challenges are further compounded in Taiwan, where women are traditionally required to practice the cultural ritual which includes confinement to the house with a special balanced diet for the first month postnatal. Lee et al (2009) used the grounded theory approach with in-depth interviews and constant comparison. All interviews were audio-taped and notes were made during and immediately after the interview concerning actions and body language of the mother during the interview. The finding of this study further indicated that the initial sight of the life-support equipment was shocking. The technological environment created a fearful atmosphere, and the medical equipment attached to their infants caused the mothers further physical separation. The mothers indicated that they were so afraid of the equipment that it took them a long time to be able to participate in their infants’ care. In turn, this hampered them from establishing positive mother–infant interactions. Chiu and Anderson (2008), found that preterm births often negatively influence mother–infant interaction due to lack of physical contact. In addition, they found that skin-to skin contact post-birth has positive effects on infant development. These researchers conducted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) using questionnaires for data collection. In addition, mothers were further video-taped during a feeding session. Ali et al., (2009),highlight the importance of kangaroo care in their RCT where the researchers conducted their study with one hundred and fourteen infants. This study showed that the infants exposed to kangaroo mother care had an increase in rectal temperature compared to conventional care, therefore having a decreased risk of hypothermia. The mean temperature during kangaroo mother care was of 37 degrees Celsius while the mean temperature during conventional care was of 36.7 degrees Celsius. The data collected was through posted questionnaires. Discussion In the 3 qualitative studies found, the data was collected through interviews of which 2 were semi-structured while 1 was unstructured. Parker (2011), Fenwick et al (2008) and Lee et al (2008), used the Grounded theory approach. However, while Parker and Fenwick use semi-structured interviews, Lee uses unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews there is a topic guide with list of areas or questions to be covered with each respondent. This technique ensures that researchers will obtain all the information required, and gives respondents the freedom to respond in their own words, provide as much detail as they wish, and offer illustrations and explanations. Lee et al (2009) uses ground theory approach but incorporated with unstructured interviews. Unstructured interviews also known as are flexible but are more time-consuming than semi-structured since the interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The interviewer listens to what the interviewee has to say. The interviewee leads the conversation (Wood & Ross-Kerr, 2011). However, anonymity for confidentiality which is of utmost importance is not possible. When using unstructured interviews, the researchers have to be able to establish rapport with the participant. The reason is that the interviewers have to be trusted if someone is to reveal intimate life information. This may lead to interviewee bias. Also, it is important to realise that unstructured interviewing can produce a great deal of data which can be difficult to analyse. Lee et al (2008) and Fenwick et al (2008) conducted the interviews themselves while Parker (2011) did not, thus reducing the bias. However, interviewer bias occurs even if someone else is conducting the interview. The number of mothers in the study of Lee et al (2008) was adequate since with in-depth interviews 20 participants are enough. However, to account for the small sample, more interviews and observations were done with the same participants in order to reach theoretical saturation. Usually informants are selected for in-depth interviews in a purposive manner questioning the generalizability of the results (Wood & Kerr, 2011). A major controversy among grounded theory researchers relates to whether to follow the original Glaser and Strauss procedures or to use the adapted procedures of Strauss and Corbin (Polit & Beck 2010). Grounded theory method according to Glaser emphasizes induction or emergence, and the individual researcher’s creativity within a clear frame of stages, while Strauss is more interested in validation criteria and a systematic approach. Parker (2011) uses the original Glaser and Strauss (1967) paradigm while Lee et al (2008) and Fenwick et al (2008) use Strauss and Corbin (1998) procedures. One of the fundamental features of the grounded theory approach is that data collection, data analysis, and sampling of study participants occur simultaneously. A procedure referred to as constant comparison is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories. Categories elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier in the data collection process so that commonalities and variations can be determined. As data collection proceeds, the inquiry becomes increasingly focused on emerging theoretical concerns. All 3 studies use constant comparison. All the above 3 studies use audio-taping for data collection except for Fenwick et al (2008) who used field note documentation as well. Audio-taping enables eye contact to be maintained and to have a complete record for analyses, however, some interviewees may be nervous of tape-recorders. On the contrary, in note taking on the other hand, a lot of eye contact is lost unless a type of short-hand is learnt. However, the interviewer will have plenty of useful quotations for report when transcribing the interview. Randomized controlled trials consist of a complete experimental test of a new intervention, involving the random assignment of a large and varied sample to different groups (Polit & Beck, 2010). The intention of an RCT is to arrive to a judgment as to whether the novelty of an intervention is more effective than the traditional intervention (Polit & Beck, 2010). This intention was well noticed throughout the RCTs chosen by Ali etal., (2009). Wood & Kerr, (2011) sustain that RCTs are the most rigorous method to determine a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the outcome. Furthermore, RCTs were also described as the gold standard trial for evaluating the effectiveness of a clinical intervention ((Muijs 2010). One of the primary aims of RCTs is to prevent selection bias by distributing the patient, randomly between the two groups, so that the difference in the outcome and results can be justified and attributed only to the intervention under study. Thus, through random selection there is a better balancing of any confounding factors, therefore creating similarity between the groups (Cottrell & McKenzie, 2010). In effect in this literature review, RCTs were found to be useful and beneficial to compare the effect of KMC and conventional care on the physiological aspects of the infant. Ali et al., (2009) chose to add blocking to randomisation so as to ensure a better balance in the number of infants allocated in the groups. These groups were randomized through simple randomization and the disruption of groups was achieved by delivering a concealed envelope technique. Through random sampling, Polit & Beck (2010) explain that each element in the population has an equivalent, autonomous chance of being chosen. However, this design is not used frequently as it is lengthy and may be expensive (Wood & Kerr, 2011). Chiu and Anderson (2008), use mixed methods of data collection by using both questionnaires and video-taped interviews. The use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth is called triangulation. This is one approach in establishing credibility as it enables the researcher to counteract the weaknesses in both designs. The use of video-taping provides the most comprehensive recording of an interview since it captures body language, facial expressions and interaction (Gerrish and Lacey 2010). However the interviewee may become uncomfortable and act differently than in normal circumstances questioning the reliability of the data collected. In addition, questionnaires are the main research tools used in quantitative research. They are very advantageous as they can be constructed in such a way as to meet the objectives of almost any research project. In the Family Needs Inventory used by Nicholas-Sargent (2009), the ‘not applicable’ part was removed from the Likert scale in order to report definite opinions. Questionnaires can measure the participants’ factual knowledge about a certain subject or an idea or else they can be used to explore opinions, attitudes or behaviours (McNabb, 2008). Moreover, questionnaires are also less expensive than most other research instruments and are also less time-consuming . Self-administered questionnaires provide the participants with anonymity, and responses are not affected by the interviewer’s mood or presence (Wood & Ross-Kerr, 2011). On the other hand, the main disadvantage of questionnaires is that there is a high possibility of a poor response rate since some questions are ignored, misinterpreted, incorrectly completed or inadequately detailed (Polit and Beck 2010). The RCT of Chiu and Anderson (2009) and Ali etal. (2009),, is one of the most powerful tools of research where people are allocated at random to receive one of several clinical interventions. However RCT’s are vulnerable to multiple types of bias at all stages of their workspan (Geretsegger et al 2012). Hence the need to establish validity and reliability. In the study done by both Ali etal.,(2009) and Chiu and Anderson (2009),the researchers increase the rigor on the study by using a large number of participants. In addition, Chiu and Anderson (2009) use the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training Program (NCAST) Feeding and Teaching scales. Nicholas-Sargent (2009), improved the rigour by using the Critical Care Family Needs Inventory (CCFNI), as a framework for the FNI. CCFNI has been thoroughly reported with results indicating internal consistency and construct validity (Gerrish and Lacey 2010). Despite this, Nicholas-Sargent (2009), use a small scale study and therefor e the results cannot be generalized. Limitations In the study done by Lee et al (2008), the data were only collected from one hospital in this present study causing generalisability of the results to be low. Moreover, the sample was restricted to those who did not have additional social, cultural or medical circumstances to consider. Moreover, coding was done by researcher itself and this might have caused some bias. Both Nicholas-Sargent (2009) and Parker (2011) use small scale studies but these were qualitative studies. Therefore, to a certain extent the findings cannot be generalized across the population of families involved with the NICU. In addition, Parker (2011) uses a retrospective study, which might have been subject to bias in recalling information. There was absence of pilot study in both Nicholas-Sargent (2009) and Chiu and Anderson (2009). The use of pilot studies helps to assess the design, methodology and feasibility of the tool and typically includes participants who are similar to those who will be used in the larger research study ( Wood & Kerr 2011). Hence, their importance. Also, the instruments chosen by Chiu and Anderson (2009), being the (NCAST and the feeding and teaching scales) for this study might not be sensitive enough to capture any between-group difference in changes resulting from the intervention. Finally, Ali et al., (2009) fail to mention intention to treat analysis where researchers can introduce reality into research by outlining that not all randomised participants will continue throughout the study. Therefore, this might be a potential weakness in this study. It was also noted the there was no detailed report about the time intervals between the two different groups. Hence, this may also have introduced performance bias. In the grounded theory approach taken by Fenwich et al (2008), limitations lie in the method of data collection itself through semi-structured interviews that were tape-recorded and field note documentation done. The authors did not acknowledge limitations in the study. Recommendations Maternal contact Fenwich et al (2008) suggests prioritising maternal-infant closeness when underpinning policies and protocols and suggests the unrestricted access to their child. Lee et al (2008) found that in Taiwan mothers are allowed to visit for 30 minutes twice a day. In Malta, mothers are allowed to stay with the child 24 hours a day. In addition, skin-to-skin contact is recommended by both Lee et al (2008) and Chiu and Anderson (2009). The latter suggests that all mothers, if they are able and whether or not they ask for it, skin-to-skin contact should be encouraged. My suggestions on interventions for critically ill infants include encouraging the parents’ presence at the bedside, assisting the parents in personalizing the bedside, and teaching the parents to gently touch their infant. Another approach is to hang a simple picture board with the first names of nurses and practitioners near the entrance to the unit. This picture board helps anxious families feel welcomed in this healing environment. In our unit, those babies who have central lines such as umbilical arterial catheters (UAC), the mothers are not allowed to hold the baby for fear of bleeding if the UAC gets dislodged. However, if the mother shows signs of needing contact with the baby, we allow her to hold the baby with constant supervision. In the case of babies that are ventilated mothers are only allowed to hold their baby if the prognosis is very poor. Therefore, this shows that, if the baby is on long term ventilation, skin-to-skin is hindered from being introduced. Fenwich et al (2008), recommend the development of tools that can better evaluate the satisfaction of the mother. Hence, the need for longitudinal qualitative research. In my opinion this would yield good results when past experiences would show which improvements were helpful and which were not. NICE standards (2010), specify the use of surveys. We can incorporate these surveys after consideration with the midwifery officer. Mother-nurse-infant interaction Because of the complexity of illness, parents of critically ill infants are anxious and fear the worst with every visit to the NICU. Strategies need to be adapted to decrease maternal anxiety while supporting the needs of these infants. (Nicholas-Sargent 2009). Nurses play a vital role in helping parents throughout the stressful and challenging experience of the NICU by developing therapeutic relationships and providing emotional support. These approaches enable parents to feel more supported, more involved, confident, and more effective as parents of their vulnerable newborn. The experience of parents in the NICU occurs during an emotionally intense period fraught with anxiety, stress, depression, and feelings of hopelessness. Therefore, Nicholas-Sargent (2009) suggests that, it would be vital to do an NICU orientation for expectant parents with a high risk of giving birth to a premature infant or a compromised newborn. Supporting and facilitating their parenting role will help decrease their stress, strain, anxiety, and depression. Lee et al (2008), nurses need to respect the cultural preferences of mothers as this would promote desired health outcomes. This would aid in meaningful, holistic and individualized care. According to Nicholas-Sargent (2009), personalized one-to-one as opposed as opposed to group support would be helpful. In addition Nicholas-Sargent (2009), suggests that nurse education is needed to improve the awareness of the impact of the counselling service. However, the service needs to be more flexible due to fluctuations in the health condition of the baby. In fact, what we notice is that mothers would require counselling at different stages of the hospitalization. Therefore, if the service was refused once, it may still mean that mothers would need it at some other point in time. Nicholas-Sargent (2009), further suggests that the counselling service would be extended to the whole family from the hospital as well as in the community., Both the DH (2009), and NICE (2010) highlight the importance of Family-Centered Care (FCC) views the family as the ‘child’s primary source of strength and support’ and allows for collaboration, respect, and support with the parents and family during all levels of the service delivery. To foster participation in care for the infant, unrestricted visiting hours should be encouraged for the nuclear family of the neonate. In Malta, visiting hours are restricted to parents only due to increase in cross infection when family members were allowed to visit for 1 hour everyday during the day. However, timing of care may still be arranged to facilitate parents’ participation. In addition, special moments such as baby’s first time off CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) needs to take place during parents’ presence. Cockfort (2011), highlights that missed opportunities to involve parents in care, heighten anxiety and can create a sense of sadness and loneliness . Information for mothers Mothers vary in the amount of information they can assimilate under stress. Therefore identifying parents’ feelings through active listening and observing will help us to pick up on parents cues and respond appropriately in order to provide parents with accurate and clear information (Fenwick et al 2008). Nicholas-Sargent (2009), adds that, information regarding the health status of the baby needs to be give in a timely provision. Parker (2011), recommends the access to certified interpreters for non-English speaking parents to enable them to ask questions and get the information they need as well as information regarding the counselling services. Likewise, an updated information board at the infant’s bedside helps mothers retain information while feeling welcome at the bedside. In my opinion, these interventions create an environment that facilitates maternal- infant attachment by promoting maternal competence with meaningful positive parenting skills and fostering partnership in care.. Conclusion In summary, the findings showed that parents of infants admitted to the NICU experience stress, depression, anxiety, and feelings of powerlessness, hopelessness, and alienation within the environment of the NICU. These situations are often overwhelming and catastrophic for the mothers keeping in mind that the process of motherhood is a protecting and loving phenomenon. Therefore mothers should participate in the care of their sick, fragile infant in the NICU through mother-infant interaction. Nurses need to be supportive and informative in dealing with parents in the NICU. Therefore, the need for parents to be given the access of interpretation by certified interpreters in order to overcome language barriers has been identified. Further, information and emotional support is required throughout the stay in the NICU, However, it was further found that information in preparation for discharge planning is vital. This enhances parental knowledge and decreases stress, which promotes more effective parenting. Further, as understanding of the parents’ experience of having an infant admitted to the NICU increases, nurses will be better prepared to meet parental needs and alleviate parental suffering. Providing holistic, developmentally supportive care and open communication with parents in this stressful experience is essential. Moreover, the need for family-centered care has been identified. REFERENCE LIST Ali, M.S., Sharma. J., Sharma. R., & Alam. S. (2009). Kangaroo mother care as compare to conventional care for low birth weight babies. Dicle Tip Dergisi. 36(3), 155-160. Chiu S. & Anderson G.C., (2009). Effect of early skin-to-skin contact on mother–preterm infant interaction through 18 months: Randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, Vol. 46, pp.1168–1180. Cleveland, L.M., 2008. Parenting in the neonatal intensive care unit. 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Johnson, A.N., 2008. Promoting maternal confidence in the NICU. Journal of Paediatric Health Care, Vol. 22 (4), 254e257. Lee S., Long A. & Jennifer B. (2009). Taiwanese women’s experiences of becoming a mother to a very-low-birth-weight preterm infant: A grounded theory study. International Journal of Nursing Studies, Vol.46, pp. 326–336 McNabb, D. E. (2008). Research Methods in Public Administration and Non-Profit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches (2nd ed.). New York: M. E. Sharpe Incorporation. Morrow V., (2009) ‘The Ethics of Social Research with Children and Families in Young Lives: Practical Experiences’. Young Lives. Oxford: Department of International Development. Muijs D., (2010). Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. London: Sage Publications NICE: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, (2010). Quality Standard for Specialist Neonatal Care http://www.nice.org.uk/media/17A/A8/ Obeidat H.M, Bond E.A. & Callister L.C., (2009). The Parental Experience of Having an Infant in the Newborn Intensive Care Unit. The Journal of Perinatal Education | Summer, Vol. 18(3), pp.23-29. Parker L., (2011). Mothers’ experience of receiving counselling/ psychotherapy on a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Journal of Neonatal Nursing, Vol.17, pp.182-189. Polit D.F. & Beck C.T. (2010) Essentials of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for Nursing Practice, 7th ed. Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. Nicholas-Sargent A., (2009). Predictors of needs in mothers with infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, Vol. 27(2), pp.195–205. Schira, M. (2009). Appraising a single Research Article. In Mateo, M. A. & Kirchhoff, K. T. (Eds.), Research for advanced practice nurses: from evidence to practice (pp. 73-85). New York: Springer Publishing Company. Strauss A. & Corbin J.( 1998). Basics of qualitative research. 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishers;. Watson, H., Booth, J. & Whyte, R. (2010). Observation. In Gerrish, K. & Lacey, A. (Eds.), The Research Process in Nursing (6th ed.) United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Limited. (pp. 382-394). Wood, M. J. & Ross Kerr, J. C. (2011). Basic Steps in Planning Nursing Research: From Question to Proposal (7th ed.). Sudbury, Canada, United Kingdom: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Adolescence problems

Adolescence describes the teenage years between 13 and 19 and can be considered the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood. However, the physical and psychological changes that occur in adolescence can start earlier, during the preteen or tween years (ages 9-12). Adolescence can be a time of both disorientation and discovery. The transitional period can bring up issues of independence and self-identity. Sometimes adolescents may be experimenting with drugs and alcohol or sexuality. During this time, peer groups and external appearance tend to increase in importance. Home BiologyHuman Population and Health Top Problems of Adolescence Most problems of adolescence are due to failure in understanding the anatomical, morphological and psychological changes expected during adolescence. Psychologically, adolescence is such a vulnerable stage that boys / girls of this age are easily carried away by perceptions generated by Misleading and misguiding parents, teachers, friends, brother/sisters. Ignorance of elders. Half informed or ill informed friends, brothers, sisters. Wrongful messages depicted through TV serials, advertisements, films Publications carrying partially or fully false information. Such perceptions can be anything in the range of studies, sex, society, married life, career, religion, politics, or any relevant subject. Every adolescent boy or girl is prone to such exposures which ultimately are retained as perceptions in their minds to form their behavioural patterns. The problems of adolescence are classified as morphological / developmental psychological social educational Some problems are absolutely unimportant and trivial. They could be easily ignored. But even such problems cause great concern to adolescent people. Psychological Problems 3. Social 4. Educational 5. Social Implications Morphological / Developmental Problems Back to Top over growth of hair or undergrowth of hair over weight and underweight skin colour problems Facial deformities, pimples, etc. Limb deformities Abnormal growth of genitals and breasts. Psychological Problems Back to Top Ignorance about many basic facts leads to psychological problems like Misconceptions about sexual feelings, sex related issues. Misconceptions about child birth, reproduction. Misconceptions about coitus, menstrual cycles. Fear about sex and sexual issues. Guilt feeling about sex related issues. Inferiority / Superiority complex about skin colour, beauty, mental ability and IQ. Inexplicable perceptions about dress and fashion codes. Wrong and unrealistic ideologies about friendship and courtship. Perceptional or communicational or preconceived complications about their teachers and parents. Attraction towards opposite sex. Unrealistic and illogical curiosity about sex and sex related issues. Exceptional vulnerability to suicide psychology. Social Back to Top Anticipated unemployment and insecurity due to unemployment. Unwarranted and inexplicable hatredness towards brother / sisters, friends. Intense closeness with brothers / sisters, friends. Unpredictable and volatile relationships with friends. Unrealistic social perceptions about violence, love, sex as influenced by media. Unusually vulnerable and volatile relations with relatives. Fear / imagination about married life, life partners. Educational Back to Top Tensions of attending the classes, examinations and tests. Low IQ feeling. Fear about failure in examination. Fear about low score. Fear and concern about a future career. Misconceptions about teachers. Due to many problems faced during adolescence, the boys and girls of the age between 8 16 form a separate category by themselves. Their problems are specific to themselves. Most of the problems faced by them are perceptional. By timely and effective guidance many of their problems could be solved. Some of them may need medical / psychiatric attention. In India, the parents influence their behaviour, thoughts and are in position to solve many problems if they have positive approach. Despite all efforts being made by parents, teachers, large number of adolescents face one or many problems. When the problem is aggravated, the parents may take them to doctors. But most of them face minor problems modifying their behavioural patterns, personality as a whole. The implications of problems in adolescence can be moral or social. Social Implications Back to Top Future citizen may have a high IQ due to positive thinking and reorientation of their mental resources towards positive personality development. A section of future population may turn into disgruntled, impatient group of people due to grooming of misconceptions about society, love, law, relations, etc. Due to wrong educational policies and ever growing unemployment problems a section of population may turn hostile against the whole society, which breeds and deepens the antisocial activities and perverted thinking. Many of the wrong perception about sex related problems may lead them to unwanted motherhood, anxiety or illegal termination of pregnancy. Some problems during adolescence are decisive in building the personalities (positive and negative) who may or may not utilize the opportunities open to them during their later life. When teachers, parents, brothers /sisters or any close person has positive dominant personality to effectively guide the adolescent at right time they turn out to be very useful section of future population. Imaginary fear, imaginary anxieties and unrealistic expectations as well as host of strong misconceptions may ultimately end up with personalities of negative / perverted thoughts. In extreme disillusions, tension, wrongful personality and maladjustments a section of population may have to be psychiatric patients. Psychosis of mild nature may remain untreated and unnoticed. Such people will not do anything useful to the society or their families. Adolescent being influenced by mass media like electronic media, print media or computer culture may be guided or misguided by such exposure. When misguided they are likely to develop negative perception about many social values. The social implications of adolescent problems are dependent upon social structure. In a country like India where family ties are strong due to emotional, financial, religious attachments the gravity of implications are less. But in an individualistic society like US / Europe where family ties are shallow the gravity of implications can be far more serious. Finding help for families, teenagers and children can be a challenge. But there is good news. Information and referral systems are available from our schools, medical offices, news magazines, the yellow pages and even the Internet. Many parents are finding help and discovering resources by asking family, friends and their co-workers. In fact, information and referrals based on a personal recommendation is a great way to find help. Unfortunately, finding help for children and families has become more  difficult than finding help for most adults problems. For instance, health insurance has many restrictions that limit who you can see and what services they can provide. Most of the problems that families and children face are not covered and only certain diagnoses will be treated. Public programs across the country lack adequate funding. The schools have programs, but they desperately need more staff and money to meet the demands that currently exist. There are many private counselors who work with children, but there are only a few who work with families and children who have serious behavioral and emotional problems. The consequence when children don’t get the help they need can be tragic. Parents and families give up when they don’t know what to do, when they are discouraged and when they lack adequate information. Finding and getting help means you need to get oriented and understand the problems and potential solutions. Behavior Problems. In order to deal with a problem it will help a great deal if parents can describe the problem in terms that may lead to a solution. Here are the problems that I see parents and their children facing. Many of these will surface in small children or they may not appear until children become teenagers. Social withdrawal and isolation Refusal to go to school Demanding and selfish attitude Disregard for rules, responsibilities and family functioning Poor study behavior and skills Unfocused or disruptive behavior in classroom Grades and school performance dropping Erratic or emotionally unstable behavior Poor hygiene and grooming Behavior is disrespectful or defiant Involved in high risk and reckless activities Using alcohol or other drugs Skipping school Stealing or theft Destructive, threatening or violent behavior Self-harming or suicidal behavior Typical Causes. It takes time for problems to become critical, life threatening or intolerable. At some point, one can trace the cause to one or more factors. A pattern of problems will usually occur over time before a problem becomes a crisis. Identifying these factors can help characterize the evolution of a problem or a crisis, the appropriate response and the potential solution that may be necessary. Brittle or fragile emotional temperament Social demands exceed current ability Peer and social pressures Failure to provide rules, discipline and a bonded relationship with a child Parental divorce or separation Family conflict and discord Neglect or abandonment Traumatic experience Undiagnosed medical or psychological problem Untreated parental alcoholism, drug abuse or mental disorder Alcohol and other drug use What are the Solutions?. The first step is to define the problem and a potential cause. After that, you need to explore potential solutions. There are at least several dozen potential solutions to any problem. That is a lot to consider. Unfortunately, access to many of these resources may depend on the parent’s employment benefits and their income. Many public programs have waiting lists and may exclude children if the problem is not severe enough. Exclusion from public programs does not mean the problem is minor. Many programs are full and can only take children with more severe problems. The following is a partial list of potential solutions. Self-help Parenting education and training Individual counseling and therapy Group counseling and therapy Parenting consultation and advice Family counseling and therapy Increased parental involvement and supervision Tutoring Special education programs Change schools Outdoor activities or adventure programs Move to a new area Parenting by other family members Foster care Health and human service case management Private school Day treatment therapy program Boarding school Therapeutic boarding school Residential treatment program Medication intervention Psychiatric hospitalization Police or law enforcement response Diagnosis can be misleading. There are many ways to define problems. One of the least useful and potentially harmful is to rely entirely on a diagnosis. A diagnosis alone can be misleading. Many problems are not solved because the problem was diagnosed, the underlying problems were missed or ignored, and the diagnosis suggested an approach that was inadequate and unfocused. A diagnosis can create a false sense of certainty. Why? Because the diagnostic procedures used in mental health are not much more sophisticated than one used to diagnose a headache or a stomach ache. For instance, there are many forms of headaches and stomach aches. There are many things that can cause a headache a tumor, tension, injury, eye strain, diet, disease, flu, allergies, a cold or bacterial infections etc.. In mental health, no matter how rigidly we use diagnostic criteria, or how sophisticated the interview process, we are still looking at patterns that have many origins. There can be many sources and causes for a particular problem – especially family problems that involve children. A traumatic experience can result in many different problems. The behaviors associated with attention deficits and hyperactivity can be caused and maintained by many things. As a result, there are many potential outcomes and approaches, and these can vary with each family, their beliefs, values, attitudes, culture, ethnicity and their resources. Parents need more than a diagnosis. It helps to understand a problem in a manner that can tell us how a potential solution may work. It’s not enough to say that a child is depressed and they need to talk to a counselor. A child who is living in an abusive home may be depressed and emotionally withdrawn, but they don’t necessarily need therapy to express their emotions. The family may be the more important focus and the most important part of the solution. Counseling and Therapy. Counseling and therapy is a mixed bag as far as solutions go. There are more than 200 types of counselors and therapists. Trying to find the right one can be overwhelming or end up a waste of time. There is also a great deal of similarity between some counselors and some therapists. Counseling is not therapy. Counseling usually results in a realization, a plan or a decision. A therapist provides an environment of activities that bring about change – almost like exercise. There are no simple words of advice or a formula that will absolutely insure that your family or child will find the right person. Trial and error may be required. But there are four guidelines that have been shown to increase the likelihood of success. Become invested. Educate yourself, gather information and become actively invested in understanding the problem and selecting a counselor or therapist. Learn how it works. Don’t select a particular counselor or therapist unless you believe they can clearly describe the problem, how their approach to therapy or counseling works, and how that approach will resolve the problem. The relationship heals. The relationship you and your child have with a counselor or therapist as well as their approach are equally important. Work with people you and your child trust, like and believe is competent. Get references. Ask for the names of other parents or professionals who can recommend a potential counselor or therapist. There is no better reference than a credible recommendation and past success with similar problems. Medications. The use of medication can present a real solution and a real problem for most parents. Medications can have a powerful effect on the mood and behavior of children. For parents who have tried everything else, medications can make the difference between a life lost and a chance to become a reasonably successful adult. There are certain realities when one decides to use medication. For one thing, psychiatric medications for behavioral and mental health problems will treat the symptoms and not the cause. Medications do not cure psychological, emotional and behavioral problems. Psychiatric medications that are used to treat depression, anxiety, mood swings, attention deficits, hyperactivity and disorganized thinking always affect another part of a child’s body and brain. These side-effects are not clearly understood and the long term impact on growing children is still uncertain. Law suites are surfacing and legislators are proposing legislation to address recognized dangers in the wrongful medication on children. While one should be cautious about the use of medications to treat behavioral problems, there is certainly a place for these drugs. In severe cases, and cases where parents cannot afford therapy and special schools, medications can bring hope to an otherwise hopeless situation. In some cases, children may require medication to simply participate in school, family activities and counseling or therapy. More importantly, a child’s personality and attitude in life will be damaged if that child is left in a depressed, anxious or otherwise dysfunctional state for an extended period of time. Medication can be a life boat and deterrent against psychological and social trauma that come from serious but temporary problems that would otherwise destroy a child’s attitude toward life. But before you start any medication, ask your pharmacist for information on the side effects. The Power of Parenting and Family. Parents and family members can have the most powerful impact of a child’s behavior, attitude and approach to life. Put simply, children are persuaded and impressed by the people they spend the most time with and the people who matter most. That should be the child’s parents and family. Why? Because a therapist can only provide an exceptional environment, relationship and activities for an hour or so a week. Individual counseling and therapy may not be enough for most children especially if that child is facing social pressure, temptations, painful experiences and inappropriate role models during the remainder of the week. In most cases, individual therapy or counseling without parental or family involvement is not enough. In some cases, therapy and counseling can result in a child developing unrealistic expectation of their parents and family. It is easier to be a therapist than it is to be a parent. This is why family education and involvement in counseling and therapy may be essential. Therapy and counseling should never replace the essential role of parents or a family. It should support those roles. But if parents are unwilling or unable to become involved with their child or in therapy, then therapy can provide the support that some children desperately need. Peers and Social Pressure. At a very early age, many children are profoundly influenced by their peers. It has been repeatedly observed in social science that children learn behaviors and will adopt the attitude of children they are emotionally bonded with. As children begin to bond with other children, they seek approval, advice and even direction for their life. The struggle for independence and separation from parents is a natural process. However, problems will invariably surface, attitudes may become hostile, and values can become lost when parents become less involved with their children. Social pressure is a powerful tendency for children to imitate and adopt the behavior and emotional sensitivity of others. Children begin to think the way they talk with their friends. Children tend to become what they think about.

A Report from a meeting on the 4see model Essay

A Report from a meeting on the 4see model - Essay Example Representatives present †¢ Simon Roberts-Director Foresight Innovation and Incubation Group, Arup. †¢ Nigel Goddard a Director in School of Informatics at the University of Edinburgh †¢ Colin Axon - A Senior Researcher at School of Engineering and Design in Brunel University, Uxbridge, †¢ Barney Foran - Institute of Land Water and Society, Charles Strut University †¢ Benjamin Warr-Director of Environmental Services and Senior Environmental Scientist, GeoQuest Ltd, Modeling paradigm Mr. Goddard took the attendees through the modeling paradigm of the 4see model. He informed members that it differs from other macroeconomic modeling methods. It expresses constraints between components of the macro economy as equations which describe how they affect each other, and then uses iterative time-stepped simulation to evolve the model of the system forward in time. A key principle in 4see modeling is handling of distinctly different classes of flows. The full 4see- GB mo del of the UK economy includes ten distinct flows which are distinguished by having differing characteristics and being non-substitutable to each other in the short term. (Roberts) Modeling principles Mr. Goddard further went on to explain that the approach to creating the model follows a simple principle: that supply follows demand but is constrained in the short term by physical infrastructure or the inputs needed for output. There were concerns on the deterministic approach and corrective approach. Mr. Goddard went on to say that deterministic approach controls the need for inputs. Where as reconciliation between demands on the right and supply of the distinct separate flows is by the corrective approach. Finally, most of the final demand in the model is...The 4see model also identified process flows. The variables of major interest, such as flows of goods and services, were not modeled as stocks and flows in the system dynamics sense, but were assumed to be consumed in the same time-period in which they were produced - there is no modeling of inventory. In system dynamics terms, they we considered being auxiliary variables. The identified fixed capital stocks in the economy with the system dynamics stock concept. This was a reflection of the categorical difference in 4seemodels between fixed capital stocks and other types of stocks such as inventories.(Roberts).We presented a macro-economic modeling framework based on deterministic and corrective approaches that enabled us to reproduce the historical data with a small number of exogenous parameters. The model was grounded in standard national macroeconomic data that conformed to international conventions of data-holding and duration.

Does totalitarianism rise out of the shadow of Liberty and Democracy Essay

Does totalitarianism rise out of the shadow of Liberty and Democracy - Essay Example Totalitarianism is defined as the autocratic tyrannical rule of one, who assumes indefinite powers with respect to all subjects governed. Democracy has typically been defined as the rule of majority, where all individuals are considered equal by law, all having equal say in their governance. Liberty, on the other hand, means the freedom of people with respect to religion, speech, property etc. and it has been traditionally affiliated with Democracy, theoretically and practically absent in Totalitarianism. But history holds evidence that Totalitarianism indeed stems from Democratic and Liberal forms of the government – a fact in spite of the contradictory theories. Writers all across the globe have written innumerable articles on this subject, and people continue to deliberate on the linkage between Democracy and Totalitarianism. Indeed, thinkers have continually predicted the collapse of Democracy into Totalitarianism since the beginning of governance. It is said that a Democracy cannot exist as a permanent form of government. It only exists till the time voters realize they have voted themselves out of treasuries which collapse due to lose fiscal policies, and Democracy is always followed by dictatorship (Tyler, 1970). This clearly implies that early contemplators clearly predicted this vicious cycle whereby Democracy will lead to Totalitarianism or Monarchy. Tyler had summed up the history of governments of the past two centuries, which clearly depict this phenomenon. Also, some people have recognized this cycle in slightly different way. Some believe the founders of government types knew how Liberty (0% government and 100% liberty) could span into Anarchy and consequently into Totalitarianism (100% government and 0% liberty). The cycle of democracy in this case is recognized as Democracy leading to Socialism, Socialism leading to Fascism, which in turn leads to Totalitarianism

Final assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Final assignment - Essay Example The amount of arable farmland in China continues to decline sharply even as the region faces yet another problem, which is water shortage (Imura 93). This paper will examine some of the ways China is trying to curb the recent trends, and what it might mean to the future of the region if these techniques do not work. In order to be an economic powerhouse, the country has to have its affairs in order so as to be able to control most of what it imports into the region. The fact that arable farmland is diminishing and water shortages are becoming rife, the region may soon be faced with problems its citizens or government may not be fully equipped to handle. A recent report by the Minister of the National Development and Reform Commission, Zhang Ping, indicates that the severe shortages of the reserve farmlands and water resources present the biggest challenges to ensuring food security for the region. Urbanization that is considered to be rather rapid and natural disasters are said to be among the top reasons why the region is losing cultivatable or arable land, thus; making it a herculean task to save the remaining percentage of land that is still cultivatable (Imura 97). China’s National Bureau of Statistics indicates that China is responsible for 20pc of the globe’s population. However, only 7pc of this has been recorded as cultivatable land. It goes on to claim that; of the over 130 million hectares of arable land that was present in China in 1996, there was only a little over 120 million hectares left by the year 2008. Bank of America has, unfortunately, claimed that China has already bypassed the 120 million hectare mark, meaning that only 115 million will be available by the year 2015. China, at the moment, can only boast of having less than 5 million hectares of land as reserve farmland (Imura 101). Further statistics by an agricultural consultancy firm indicate that there is need to maintain or preserve the remaining 120 million

Discussion based on the east asia crisis Assignment

Discussion based on the east asia crisis - Assignment Example The international monetary fund (IMF) and world bank had not surveyed the abundant achievements of the area. According to Stilgitz, this may have resulted due to the East Asia rejections to follow western policies such as the Washington consensus so as to attain success (Stiglitz 89-99). Stiglitz discusses two patterns. The devaluation of the nation’s currency which occurred frequently all over the area. If a merchant believes a currency will devaluate they sell their stocks of that money, this leads currency to devalue since the supply of money rises while demand does not. The government also spends its foreign currency reserves to pile up its own currency until it gets exhausted of the reserves, either way the currency falls in value. This case was mainly in Thailand(Stiglitz 99-111). The second pattern was realized after the end of the Korean War. The country reformed its economy by tightly controlling its financial markets. After much pressure from the United States it reluctantly allowed its firm to borrow from aboard, this borrowing from the abroad exposed themselves to the vagaries of the international market. The Withdrawal of the World Bank from lending it caused its downfall in the economy (Stiglitz 99-111). IMF had a role of lending the money to the East Asia countries. But it did it at a higher interest rate, cutbacks in government spending and increase in taxes. Other additional conditions a county was mandated to make increase in openness and transparency and improve in the financial market as well as minor reforms such as abolition of the clove monopoly in Indonesia. Moreover, the idea of the capital account liberation without evidence that such policies promote growth was the one of most important factor to the cause of the crisis. This made the developing nations subject to both rational and irrational whims of the investor community. The Beggar-thyself

Industrial Revolution in Modern British History Essay

Industrial Revolution in Modern British History - Essay Example Hence, moving to towns to work in mills and factories was inevitable not forgetting that factory owners built houses for workers making them motivated. Many analysts regard industrial revolution as the most important event in modern British history because, many transformations that brought tremendous effects on social, economic as well as cultural activities of Britons took place during this period. Change in means of agriculture, mineral extraction, manufacturing of goods, means of transport, and technological advancements led to a major turning point of United Kingdom’s history since close to all daily aspects of life transformed in one way or the other. To begin with, due to improved models of attaining relevant targets of work, the average income of most people together with population commenced depicting unprecedented and sustained growth. It was during this time when most masses of ordinary people began exhibiting sustained change in terms of their living standards due to economic growth (Spievogel, 2010:432). Industrial revolution led to vast change of agricultural activities. Before, industrial revolution, farmers in the United Kingdom used to languish in dire poverty, headed solitary and nasty lives. However, their lives changed drastically when industrial revolution brought about use of farm machines such as threshers that led to advent agricultural production. In 1750, Britain became the leading agricultural producing country in the world due to improved technological advancements in agriculture and market and economic integration (Spievogel, 2010:288). With reference to agricultural development that occurred during industrial revolution, analysts consider industrial revolution as vital to most Britons today since those inventions are still useful and reliable up to date. Due to industrial revolution in Britain, scientists developed complex technologies that led to massive production of deadly weapons that British fighters used during the Sec ond World War. In addition, industrial revolution resulted to formation of very great armies equipped with airplanes, submarines, bombs, tanks, guns and many other armaments that Britain industrialist were producing in vast numbers (Foud, 2004:183). Furthermore, Britain was able to conquer more countries since it needed more colonies for extraction of raw materials, slaves, and market for her new manufactured products. Industrial revolution ensured sufficient supply of armaments during the war hence Britain was able to protect its interests due to impacts of advanced technology. Moreover, this epoch time of industrial revolution led Britain to total domination of the seas. This happened due to its strong military force making it possible and easier to gain total control of the oceanic transportation and trading activities. Through ocean trade, she could ferry her manufactured products, such as tea, tobacco, and sugar to different markets that boosted the economy of this country to a different level. Consequently, due to increasing demand for investments, the country’s national banking system ensured adequate supply of capital since it had surplus finances for use in commerce (Foud, 2004:209). Additionally, industrial revolution time in Britain will remain unique since inventions and innovations of all time occurred during this time. John Kay invented the flying shuttle a machine

Management of information Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Management of information Systems - Essay Example and Google have been able to reduce their costs of production, carry out market segmentation, and produced differentiated products. The need to introduce modern technology in regular business operations have been necessitated by the stiff competition created through globalization. One of these latest technologies is the electronic commerce. With the competition intensifying, companies such as Google Inc. have gone an extra mile to make their operations electronic. Qin broadly defines electronic commerce (e-commerce) as the widespread applications of computer networks and internet to communicate, carry out commercial transactions, and make online payments (34). It draws on a number of technologies including mobile commerce, supply chain management, electronic data interchange (EDI), automated data collection technologies, inventory management systems, on-line marketing, and electronic fund transfers. In this twenty first century, e-commerce heavily reply on the World Wide Web (www) in nearly every life cycle of a transaction, though it also rely on other internet-enabled technologies such as e-mail. It is an e-business aspect that aids is data exchange and facilitation of financial payments (Laudon and Guercio 37). E-businesses take the form of virtual storefronts (E-tail), on-line marketplaces, e-mails, or fax. Since 2000, the numbers of business transactions conducted by Google Inc. via online platforms have more than tripled. Kurihara established that e-commerce accounts for over 60% of retails transactions globally. Information technology has directly impacted on the business sector by expanding customer bases, increasing product information symmetry, and improving product/service quality (72). Internet serves as an interactive medium where the business community congregates and transacts. Besides, this medium helps in eliminating geographic barriers to trade and commerce. E-commerce is critical in the strengthening of customer

Traveling Through the Dark Essay Example for Free

Traveling Through the Dark Essay When reading a poem for the first time, it is fairly easy to view it on a literal level. Nonetheless, after analyzing the purpose, tone, word choice, and figures of speech and how they simultaneously work together, the reader is hit with a whole new perception of the poem. William Staffords Traveling through the Dark holds this characteristic. The poem is about a man driving on a narrow road at night and his internal conflict triggered by an encounter with a dead deer along the road. He immediately leaves his car and walks toward the deer with the intention of rolling it into the canyon. However, when he discovers that this deer has an unborn fawn, the man is struck with an instant conflict. Does he push the deer off into the canyon? Or does he leave it alone and save the fawn while endangering the lives of others that will travel this narrow road? Stafford uses a mans simple confrontation with a deer as an instrument for conveying a deeper message about nature. He comes across a dead deer, and without hesitation, plans to push it into the canyon. This clearly indicates that the speaker holds no emotions whatsoever for the deer. Then, a conversational tone is thrown into the mix. The narrator is sharing and guiding the readers through his experience. He gives advice in line four, It is usually best to roll them into the canyon. This supports his informal attitude and establishes a relationship with the reader in hopes of allowing the reader to feel the way he does. Several symbolic elements emphasize the theme of Traveling through the Dark, all within the last three stanzas of the poem. The first symbol, an unborn fawn. The fawn represents the future of nature in the changing world. Although the mother, or nature in present time, has been killed the fawn still waits alive, still, never to be born (11). The fawn waits in hope that it will live to breathe air, in the hope that the speaker will save it. However, technology is also competing for the speaker’s attention. The first three lines of the fourth stanza make the idling car into a mechanized beast that kills nature. Some details about this mechanized beast are on lines thirteen to fifteen where the car aimed ahead (13) its lights, purred (14) its steady, idling engine, and emitting warm exhaust turning red (15). The third and final symbol is revealed only in the last stanza. On line seventeen, I thought hard for us all exhibits the fact that the speaker is representative of all mankind. The speaker represents mankind coming around the curve in the dark. He symbolizes mankind being caught in the struggle between nature and technology. Nature in the form of a dead doe is portrayed as an object worthy of pity while the mechanical beast is a ruthless image. Among the various descriptions relating to the dead doe, the most conspicuous is of her being large in the belly (8). The heap, a doe (6) describes the speaker’s first impression of the recent killing. Aside from those two images, the other description of the doe correlates to the sense of touch; the speaker notices that that the doe’s side was warm (10) after brushing finger against her fur. Stafford describes the car with regards to three of the body’s five senses. The car is described as having its lights lowered (13) or dimmed, casting the scene in shadows. The steady purring emitted from the engine appeals to the speaker’s sense of hearing. Warm exhaust (16) caresses the speaker, stimulating the speaker’s sense of touch.

Globalisation challenges facing China

Globalisation challenges facing China The aim of this report is to identify the challenges that globalisation presents or is presenting to The Peoples Republic of China, and show Chinas reaction to these challenges. Globalisation as a whole refers to shift toward a more integrated and interdependent world economy. (Hill, 2009, p6). Globalisation can be looked at from a market point and also a production point. A market point referring to creating a global market place where markets that were once separated by different barriers become one. Hill (2009). Globalisation of production refers to the manipulation and taking advantage of the differences related to factors of production worldwide, for example costs of different factors may vary. This is called out sourcing of production. Hill (2009) China is a perfect example for globalisation ,with a population of 1.3 billion people and with a culture dating back 6000 years, these large numbers and strong cultural background form a both a large market and a large work force. Politically, China is governed by the CCP (Chinese Communist Party). (Kahn, 2009) China is still perceived as one of the key players to lead the world out of recession. 1.1Methodology. Secondary research has been used to compile this report. With an aim of getting academic facts about globalisation, and up to date information on China, both text books and internet sources have been used. The main text book for the research for this assignment has been International Business by Charles W.L. Hill. 2. Chinas population With just over 1.3 billion people, china has the biggest population and is the worlds largest country .As the worlds population is approximately 6.7 billion, china represents almost 20% of the worlds population . 2.1 Chinas economy. Since the introduction of the economic reforms in the late 1970s which focussed on decollectivization of agriculture, liberalization of prices, decentralization of economic production, granting more independence to state-owned business enterprises, opening up the country to foreign direct investment; chinas economy has had substantial growth. In the period of 1990-2004, its economy grew at an average rate of over 9.5%,the highest growth rate in the world. In the fiscal year of 2007, chinas GDP stood at US$3.4 trillion making it the worlds third largest economy by GDP, after the United States and Japan (CNN 2009), and in 2009 surpassed Germany becoming the 2nd largest economy in per capita terms, despite global economic slowdown. Much of the success is attributed to chinas slow and steady approach in implementing the reforms. Chinas economy is expected to to grow by 9.5 % in 2010 (The State Council Development Research Centre, a leading state think tank) From figure .2 we see that Chinas output grew by 10.3% in 2010 to, slower than its growth in the previous quarter (11.9%), but not substantially slower. Inflation also eased, going below the central banks official target of 3%. The slowdown is not necessarily bad news, chinas economy is now operating at full capacity. 3. Globalisation Globalisation is is the objective trend of economic development in the world today, featured by free flow and optimized allocation of capital, technology, information and service in the global context. It is the inevitable result of the development of productive forces and advances of science and technology, especially the revolution of information technology since the 1980s and 1990s. (H.E. Ambassador Zha Peixin At Chinese Economic Association Annual Conference (14 April, 2003)) The influence of globalization on countries at different stages of development is very different China has taken advantage of increased globalisation to promote its growth and development. over the past 30 years chinas share in world trade has increased by over 20 times . Trade dependence rose from 10 to 36%. Foreign Direct investment has increased by almost 2009 over the previous year making China the third largest recipient of FDI . According to a modular study on the synergy of FDI conducted by the Development Research Centre of the State Council, Chinas GDP recorded an average annual growth rate of 9.7% over the past 20 years, of which 2.7% was attributed to FDI. These effects of globalisation have helped the Chinese people in terms of improved lifestyle and annual income and china has been labelled the next super economic power. In 1999, the world bank and the united nations development program issued a report which points that the number of poverty stricken people is increasing in many places in the world but china is an exception. The number of rural poor reduced from 250 million in 1978 to 30 million in 2000 and poverty incidence from 30.7% to about 3% in 2000. However, along with these numerous opportunities ,came hefty challenges. This has led Chinese government to adopt a series of strategically significant policies so as to address the challenge of economic globalization We shall look further into these challenges in the following sections 4.CHALLENGES RESPONSES OF CHINA China faces a number of challenges due to globalisation. Some of these include The growing income inequality gap between the rich and the poor. Unemployment, inflation Westernisation and the loss of strong cultural roots, and increase in corruption. Country-wide improvement of transport and communication. However, the more pressing challenges faced by china are analysed in more detail below 4.1 health and education Before the reform, Chinas two key health indicators i.e life expectancy and infant mortality were much better than average for low income countries andmiddle income countries. In the World Health Organizations (WHO) 1978 Alma Ata Conference Health For All by the Year 2000, Chinas primary health care system was featured as a model for the world. Life expectancy increased from 35 to 67 years and infant mortality dropped from more than 200 per 1000 to 42 per 1000. The health care system has gone through several rounds of market oriented reform since the 1980s. Despite high GDP growth rates in recent years, the quality of the health care system has not been improved or even been maintained in many ways. Health care costs skyrocketed 15 fold even after inflation was taken into account (from 14.32 billion yuan to 662.33 billion yuan), as more clinics and hospitals are pressured by the profit motive. Instead of continuing as a leader of health care performance, China has become a leader in the worldwide trend toward private health care financing In July 2005, the Development Research Center of the State Council released an official document admitting that market-oriented health care reform had not been a Success, According to a Peoples Daily Online report in October 2004, China plans to set up a cooperative health-care network by 2010 to enable Chinas 900 million rural residents to enjoy basic medical care.91 In May 2004, China Daily reported that the government will invest 1 billion yuan ($121 million USD) in projects to improve public health infrastructure in rural areas As with health care, education costs have skyrocketed in the last 20 years while the share of government financing has dropped significantly. In 1999, public spending on education was only 2.79 percent of GDP, in comparison to 4.38 percent of the world average. This means that the cost of education has become very high and children from rural poor families asr forced to drop out. Also, with much emphasis being put on higher learning, education is increasingly geared toward book knowledge and college entrance exams, often ignoring community conditions and needs. Education has therefore become a risky investment especially for poor countries as the chances of upward social mobility are limited March 2005, Prime Minister Wen Jiabao announced a fee-exemption policy. The policy will remove fees for 14 million students in the countrys 592 poorest counties. The plan will continue until all rural students receive a free primary education. The government also promised funds to modernize rural schools over the next five years to reflect education in urban centers-supplying technology such as satellite educational programs and educational DVDs. 4.2 Environmental degradation As an economy grows, so does its demand for resources and environmental problems arises. China mainly exports are manufactured goods, and in the process of manufacturing there is always some form of degradation or pollution done to the environment. An estimated 300million people are drinking contaminated water in china, only 20% of solid waste is properly disposed of, and only 10% of sewage is treated according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development These environmental problems are costing 7% of China GDP, and will rise to 13% if this problem is not addressed properly. In 1994, the government began a massive clean up campaign for the Huai River, one of the most polluted rivers in China. After billions of dollars were poured into the cleanup effort, the improvement of the water quality still remains an illusion The development of China has been accompanied by industrial and mining accidents, and severe ecological damage such as deforestation, desertification and soil erosion, the report says. It estimates that 2.64m sq km, or 27.5% of the countrys landmass is now becoming desertified. Some 400 million people are affected by extensive soil salination and blowing sand. This is leading to villages becoming buried, the reduced life of irrigation works and widescale respiratory diseases. (OECD,2007) Chinas air pollution increased this year for the first time since 2005, the environmental protection ministry has said, due to sandstorms, a rise in construction and industrial projects, and more cars. The explosion of private vehicles in recent years (19 percent annual growth) has increased oil consumption. The ministry found that the number of good air quality days in 113 major cities across the nation had dropped 0.3 percentage points in the first six months of the year compared with the same time last year.(physorg.com) More construction and industrial projects that started this year due to economic recovery and the rapid increase in automobiles should also be blamed, Chai Fahe, vice head of the Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, told the China Daily newspaper. Theres also increased demand for oil and other fossil fuels occurs implicating a rise in carbon emissions. Both China and India are carbon hungry nations and in the past years, nations consent to purchasing carbon emissions (Carbon Offsets Daily, 2009). The Chinese government has expressed a keen interest in addressing the problem by establishing many different laws and regulation regarding the environmental protection and resources management As a solution to global warming, the Chinese president introduced the carbon intensity measure, in this, the nation is planning to decline its emissions of CO2 per unit of GDP by 2020 (BBC News, 2009). The government is hoping to promote renewable energy resource projects, such as hydroelectric, solar and wind energy, by offering financial incentives. The Chinese government has allowed the proliferation of environmental NGOs, hoping these NGOs can fill in the gap to educate the public on related issues and address the countrys pressing ecological problems. There are about 2,000 officially registered environmental NGOs, with perhaps as many registered as business enterprises, or not registered at all. Many international NGOs such as the Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund, and Greenpeace have established offices in China. Many green NGOs have worked very closely with Chinas State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA). In December 2004, SEPA suspended the construction of about 30 large projects because they lacked the environmental impact assessment required by law 4.3 Competitors Chinas export-led economy has facilitated trading with other countries.. During the global recession prices of exports increased as a result of inflation. This gave way for other low wage countries to gain foreign direct investments from host countries that outsource labour. In 2004, several multinational companies outsourced from India and Bangladesh which offer same or even less wages than china (srinvasan 2004) china formed partnerships with its dominant economies, Brazil, india and Russia ( also known as the Big four) in order to reduce on the competition and create fairer trade conditions for the member countries. 4.4 Domestic consumption China is an export led economy and it faces the challenge of transitioning to one that depends mainly on domestic consumption. An economy cannot rely only on foreign exports for future GDP growth. Domestic demand is weak as Chinese consumption is low. Responding to the dramatic change in the economic climate, China has made a fundamental shift from over-relying on exports to boosting domestic consumption to keep its economy afloat, Chinas Vice President, Xi Jinping, calling for a new direction, argued that we must develop the economy mainly by relying on the domestic market and attach great importance to domestic demand, especially consumption demand, in driving economic development.. This may be achieved by emphasizing private consumption, keeping inflation low and sustaining a strong currency in order to keep the purchasing power of the consumer boosted. The transition, though healthy for the long-term, is unlikely to be smooth. Export-oriented factories cannot suddenly be rebuilt to serve domestic needs. 5. Conclusion Since the economic reform when china opened up its trade barriers to other countries, it has seen high levels of economic growth. Much of this success can be attributed to its large population which provided a large work force, that enabled increase in productivity making china one of the worlds leading exporters. One can reasonably say that chinas advantage in human resources has largely been liquidated. However the number of elderly has increased alongside decreasing fertility rates. leaving the government with the challenge of improving health sector so as to Higher education has increased significantly in recent years, but at the cost of basic public education for most children. One could reasonably propose that Chinas advantage in human resources has largely been liquidated. This also partly explains why Environmental degradation has also been a key setback and the government has encouraged NGOs that focus on environmental issues to sensitises the public.. Chinese environmentalists need to gain independence both financially and intellectually. The heavy dependence on international funding makes them vulnerable to political attacks. Some have been accused of being foreign agents who are trying to stop Chinas development. Instead of learning only from their western counterparts, Chinese groups need to have more exchange and communications with ecological colleagues from other developing countries China is also putting more into research and technological development in order to face the challenge of competition. They hope that by offering superior products they will continue to remain at the top of the export market. But china still has a long way to go in terms of technological development and creativity.)` China now depends so much on exports of labor-intensive products, directly competing with other developing countries. But for china to depend solely on exports is not wise so the government believes that by boosting domestic consumption, it will form a more balanced economy. Globalisation has offered china opportunities as well as challenges. And it is striving to reap benefits from the advantages while avoiding harm from the disadvantages.